Skip Navigation

British Medical Bulletin 2006 75-76(1):1-14; doi:10.1093/bmb/ldh057
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow FREE Full Text (PDF) Freely available
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My Personal Archive
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Disclaimer
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Chadwick, D. R.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Chadwick, D. R.
Related Collections
Right arrow Infectious Diseases
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us  
What's this?

Published online 10 February 2006

© The Author 2006. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The British Council. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org

Viral meningitis

David R. Chadwick*

Department of Infection & Travel Medicine, The James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough TS4 3BW, UK

* Correspondence to: David R. Chadwick, Department of Infection & Travel Medicine, The James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough TS4 3BW, UK. Tel.: +44 1642 854339; fax: +44 1642 854462; e-mail: davidr.chadwick{at}stees.nhs.uk


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
 References
 
Viruses probably account for most cases of acute meningitis. Viral meningitis is often assumed to be a largely benign disease. For the commonest pathogens causing meningitis, enteroviruses, this is usually the case; however, for many of the other pathogens causing viral meningitis, and for common pathogens in the immunocompromised or infants, viral meningitis is frequently associated with substantial neurological complications and a significant mortality. Diagnostic methods for rapid and accurate identification of pathogens have improved over recent years, permitting more precise and earlier diagnoses. There have been fewer developments in therapies for viral meningitis, and there remain no effective therapies for most pathogens, emphasising the importance of prevention and early diagnosis. This review focuses on the presentation, diagnosis and management of viral meningitis and also covers the prevention of meningitis for pathogens where effective vaccines are available.

Keywords: meningitis • virus • viral • meningoencephalitis • herpesvirus • enterovirus • diagnosis


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
 References
 
Viral meningitis is an important cause of admission to hospital, with an estimated incidence of around 5–15 cases per 100 000 per year in the UK [1]. The reported incidence almost certainly underestimates the true level, particularly for enteroviral meningitis, the commonest pathogen identified. Of the remaining causes of viral meningitis and central nervous system (CNS) infections, herpes simplex virus (HSV) and flaviviral meningoencephalitis are the most important in terms of morbidity and mortality, although mumps infection has recently reemerged as an important pathogen in young adults in the UK. Other significant causes of viral meningitis are illustrated in Table 1. Most viruses causing meningitis exhibit a marked seasonality, with a number also having specific geographical distributions, underlining the importance of obtaining an accurate travel history in patients presenting with aseptic meningitis.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 1 Aetiology, epidemiology and potential complications of the more significant causes of viral meningitis

 

Distinguishing viral from bacterial meningitis on presentation or admission to hospital, on the basis of clinical features and initial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) parameters, presents a considerable challenge. There are considerable benefits in making this distinction swiftly, in terms of both reducing antibiotic usage and hospital bed occupancy and reassuring contacts of cases and health care staff of a non-bacterial cause [2]. For the purposes of this review, the term viral meningitis will be used to describe both acute and chronic meningitis as well as meningoencephalitis. Although some viruses cause a pure encephalitis, myelitis or post-infectious encephalitis, discussion of these disorders is beyond the scope of this review.


   Pathophysiology
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Pathophysiology
Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
 References
 
Viruses enter the CNS through several mechanisms [3]. Many, such as enteroviruses, replicate outside the CNS and then invade by haematogenous spread. Viral particles pass directly across the blood–brain barrier, or are carried across in infected leukocytes (e.g. mumps, measles or herpesviruses), and then infect vascular endothelial cells. Other viruses invade through peripheral and cranial nerves, as for polio and HSV, respectively. Once within the CNS, viruses may spread through the subarachnoid space in CSF, with consequent inflammatory response leading to meningitis. Viruses may also spread directly or via inflammatory leukocytes through neural tissue to neurones and glial cells.

Once CNS infection has taken hold, inflammatory cells, including lymphocytes specifically targeting the infecting virus, accumulate in the CNS. This is accompanied by the release of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-{alpha} as well as local immunoglobulin production by plasma cells. Inflammatory responses leading to increased permeability of the blood–brain barrier also permit entry of circulating immunoglobulins. Viruses may evade effective immune response either through immune tolerance or through escape of immune surveillance. T lymphocyte responses are an essential part of the immune response to some viruses, as illustrated by the increased frequency and morbidity associated with chronic cytomegalovirus (CMV) or varicella-zoster virus (VZV) meningitis in patients with impaired cell-mediated immunity. Viruses such as VZV may cause disease through a cerebral vasculitis, with immunocompetent patients usually developing a large-vessel vasculitis and immunocompromised patients developing a small-vessel, more diffuse vasculitis.


   Epidemiology and clinical features
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
 References
 
Enteroviruses

Human enteroviruses cause a wide variety of diseases including polio, hand, foot and mouth disease, myocarditis, and aseptic meningitis, most commonly affecting and transmitted through children [4–7]. They are now classified into five species: human enteroviruses A–D (including echoviruses and coxsackieviruses) and polio. Enteroviruses are thought to cause over 75 000 cases of meningitis in the USA each year and cause substantial morbidity in adults as well as children [7]. Enteroviral meningitis is the commonest cause of aseptic meningitis, with both epidemic and endemic patterns of disease, and the predominant serotypes identified are echoviruses 6, 9, 11, 13, 19 and 30. The reported incidence is almost certainly a great underestimate because most cases are mild and do not result in hospital admission and diagnostic lumbar puncture. Earlier this decade, there were large summer epidemics of enteroviral meningitis in the UK, due mostly to the type B enteroviruses: echovirus types 13 and 30 [1]. In temperate climates, enteroviral infections are commonest during the summer and autumn months, and spread is predominantly through the faecal–oral route, with infections often commonly acquired in child-care facilities. Meningitis is most commonly seen in school-aged children, although is frequently the cause of admission in pre-school children and adults. Endemic polio is now confined to many Central African and west Asian countries, although sporadic cases still occur in other areas of the world. The incubation period of non-polio enteroviral infections is usually around 3–7 days and that of polio is usually between 1 and 3 weeks.

The typical presentation of enteroviral meningitis in children is with vomiting, anorexia, rash or respiratory symptoms as well as meningism, often preceded by flu-like symptoms and a sore throat [6]. Focal neurological signs or seizures are rare, except in neonates who are most at risk of developing meningoencephalitis and severe systemic complications such as myocarditis or necrotizing enterocolitis, which are associated with substantial mortality. Specific clinical features may identify particular enteroviruses: for example, herpangina is typically found with coxsackievirus A infection, whereas a scattered maculopapular rash is frequently seen with echovirus 9 infection. The presentation in adults is often similar to that of bacterial meningitis, with photophobia perhaps more prominent in enteroviral meningitis [2, 7]. A subtle rash, which is sometimes noted, may lead to a suspicion of meningococcal septicaemia. Although often thought to be a benign cause of meningitis, enteroviral meningitis is associated with significant morbidity in adults in terms of hospitalization and time taken to return to work [7]. Nonetheless, severe complications of enteroviral meningitis are extremely rare and mostly seen in the immunocompromised.

Whilst acute and chronic complications of enteroviral meningitis appear to be unusual in the immunocompetent, during epidemics of hand, foot and mouth disease, enterovirus 71 meningitis has led to significant morbidity and mortality in children [4]. There is some uncertainty regarding the long-term outcome in children with enteroviral meningitis, particularly those who had meningitis as infants. There is some evidence that in children with meningitis under 1 year of age, subtle neurodevelopmental problems such as language may later be detected [8]. A UK study of children with meningitis in the first year of life found that 42% of children with echovirus meningitis had mild or moderate neurological disability by the age of 5 years [9].

One well-recognized group of patients developing a more severe and chronic form of infection, particularly associated with echovirus 11, are those with primary immune deficiencies, mostly X-linked agammaglobulinaemia [10]. This complication has acquired the synonym CEMA (chronic encephalitis and meningitis with agammaglobulinaemia), although a significant proportion of cases also develop dermatomyositis, hepatitis, arthritis or myocarditis. Patients developing CEMA often seem to have had inadequate immunoglobulin replacement, and mortality is around 50% 5 years after diagnosis [11]. The immunocompromised are also at a higher risk of developing paralytic poliomyelitis, which in developed countries has been acquired through receipt of (or contact with those who have received) oral polio virus (OPV).

Herpesviruses

The most important cause of CNS infections amongst herpesviruses are the HSVs (HSV-1 and HSV-2), which are the commonest cause of acute sporadic encephalitis in adults and children over 6 months of age [12]. The spectrum of CNS infection of these viruses includes meningitis, encephalitis, myelitis and, occasionally, radiculitis (usually sacral); however, the most serious of these is encephalitis, with a mortality of around 70% if untreated [13]. There is a bimodal distribution in the age range of those affected, most being over 50 years of age and the younger subgroup being under 20 years of age, possibly reflecting reactivation of HSV infection and primary infection, respectively. HSV encephalitis is predominantly caused by HSV-1, whereas meningitis is more often caused by HSV-2, although is not always associated with episodes of genital herpes. HSV-2 has more often been established as a cause of recurrent aseptic meningitis, sometimes labelled Mollaret’s meningitis, than HSV-1 [12].

HSV meningitis presents similarly to other types of meningitis, with most patients reporting headaches, a stiff neck and fever. Encephalitis usually manifests as a focal, rather than diffuse, encephalitis [14], although it is important to consider HSV in patients presenting with reduced levels of consciousness. The typical anatomical site affected by HSV is the temporal lobe; hence, encephalitis may present with personality change, mutism or hallucinations as well as more common focal neurological signs. HSV-2 meningitis causes neurological complications more often than most other viral meningitis: around one-third of all patients in one study developed complications; however, virtually all of these had resolved after 6 months [15]. HSV-2 meningitis has also been identified as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients [16]. Between 10 and 30% of HSV meningoencephalitis cases appear to relapse, normally between 1 week and 3 months following completion of therapy. As with other types of meningitis, adverse prognostic indicators of HSV meningitis or encephalitis include a low Glasgow coma scale at presentation, extremes of age and a delay in starting antimicrobial therapy.

Other herpesviruses associated with meningoencephalitis include Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), CMV, VZV and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6). CNS infections with these viruses are mostly seen in the immunocompromised, and CMV in particular has been associated with a chronic meningoencephalitis in advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. CMV and VZV may also cause a myelitis or, occasionally, a ventriculitis, and VZV has been associated with a large-vessel cerebral vasculitis causing strokes, particularly in the elderly. Systemic clinical features may point to the possibility of a herpesviral cause: a mononucleosis-like syndrome would suggest the possibility of EBV or CMV, a widespread vesicular rash VZV and infantum roseola HHV-6 infection.

Flaviviruses

These mosquito- or tick-borne viruses have specific geographical areas of endemicity, and their incidence is also related to seasons [17]. The Japanese encephalitis complex is the most important antigenic group causing meningitis. Japanese B encephalitis is endemic in Southeast Asia, whereas West Nile virus is found in west Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Central and Southern Europe and North America. Tick-borne encephalitis is endemic in some areas of forests and meadows in Central and Eastern Europe, and Asia. St. Louis encephalitis virus is found only in the Americas, whereas Murray Valley encephalitis virus is confined to Australia and New Zealand. The main host for these viruses are birds; however, pigs are also an important host for Japanese B encephalitis. West Nile virus has received much attention in recent years because it emerged as a new pathogen on the West Coast of the USA in 1999, then spread east, culminating in nearly 3000 cases of meningitis and 276 deaths in 2002 [17]. There were also reports in that year, for the first time, of transmission through transfusions and organ transplants [18]. In the USA, West Nile virus has predominantly affected adults, whereas elsewhere in the world it is mainly children and non-immune adults who are affected, as happens for Japanese B encephalitis and Murray Valley encephalitis. St. Louis encephalitis, on the other hand, tends to occur in epidemics across all age groups, mostly in the southern and eastern states of the USA.

Most flaviviral infections are either asymptomatic or cause mild febrile illness without overt meningitis, with an incubation period of 5–15 days. The characteristic presentation of West Nile fever is arthralgia, rash and fever [19], whilst Japanese B encephalitis may present with abdominal pain or nausea and vomiting. CNS manifestations vary between each virus, with between 1 in 25 and 1 in 1000 cases developing some form of involvement. Japanese B encephalitis is predominantly an encephalitis, whereas up to 40% of West Nile virus and St. Louis encephalitis infections (and 50% of Murray Valley encephalitis) present with meningitis. Tick-borne encephalitis, on the other hand, is a biphasic illness, with meningitis or encephalitis developing in a small proportion of patients a few days after the initial febrile illness subsides. Apart from the typical presentation of meningitis, many infections (especially in children) present with seizures or an altered level of consciousness; other complications of encephalitis such as hemiparesis or cranial nerve palsies may also occur. Two other neurological manifestations include a poliomyelitis-like syndrome, with features of flaccid paralysis, and a parkinsonian syndrome, reflecting the involvement of the anterior spinal cord and basal ganglia, respectively, in these infections. Severe neurological and systemic complications including death are more common in elderly adults, the immunocompromised and (for West Nile virus) diabetics. Around 50% of those with meningoencephalitis are left with long-term neurological disability or psychiatric sequelae.

Other flaviviruses including dengue and yellow fever groups can potentially cause CNS infections, although they are very rare manifestations. The tick-borne complex viruses, on the other hand, are a well-recognized cause of meningoencephalitis in Central Europe and Asia, with the greatest incidence during the summer months. Several other insect-borne viruses (arboviruses) causing meningitis, particularly in the Americas, are described in the footnotes to Table 1.

Mumps

Mumps meningitis is one of the commonest causes of viral meningitis in populations not immunized against this virus, estimated to occur in between 10 and 30% of those infected. Males are 2–5 times more likely than females to develop this infection, and children are most commonly affected, although a recent resurgence in cases in the UK has largely affected late teenagers and young adults who did not receive a full course of measles–mumps–rubella (MMR) or mumps vaccine. Meningitis is a more common manifestation than mumps encephalitis, typically associated with fever and vomiting; however, parotid or other salivary gland enlargement is only evident in around half of all cases. Very few of those affected develop complications such as encephalitis, neuropathies, myelitis or Guillain–Barré syndrome, and mortality is rare. Aseptic meningitis is also a rare consequence of mumps or MMR vaccination.

HIV

HIV meningitis is principally a seroconversion phenomenon, occurring in up to 10% of all symptomatic seroconversion illnesses. It is characteristically associated with a mononucleosis-like syndrome, with fever, lymphadenopathy, sore throat or a rash. A small proportion of cases progress to a chronic meningitis, sometimes complicated by cranial neuropathies or other focal signs. HIV counselling and testing should be performed on anyone presenting with aseptic meningitis, where risk factors of HIV infection are evident or an alternative pathogen is not identified. Patients with opportunistic viruses causing meningitis, such as CMV, should also be routinely tested unless another cause of immunosuppression is evident. HIV encephalopathy [or acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)–dementia complex] results from chronic HIV infection of the CNS and is more common in advanced disease, although now rarer since the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

Other viruses

A wide variety of other viruses are capable of causing meningitis; however, they are less commonly identified. Measles may occasionally cause meningitis; however, a post-vaccination (to single vaccine or MMR) aseptic meningitis is more common in countries with high levels of vaccine coverage. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is normally acquired from house mice, although occasionally has been linked to pet hamsters, possibly via an airborne route. Its peak incidence is in the autumn months. Meningitis normally follows a non-specific prodromal illness, and in addition, patients may also report symptoms of pharyngitis and myalgia. Later complications include arthritis, pericarditis or alopecia. Congenital LCMV is an underdiagnosed cause of foetal abnormalities. An aseptic meningitis may complicate adenovirus, influenza and parainfluenza viral infections, and influenza vaccination has been associated with an acute aseptic meningitis. Although many other viruses are known to cause an acute meningoencephalitis, including rhabdoviruses (rabies), parvovirus B19, Nipah and Hendra viruses (Morbillivirus), bunyaviruses and togaviruses, meningitis due to these infections is very rare, especially in Europe.


   Diagnosis
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
 References
 
The most useful investigations to establish the cause of viral meningitis require CSF [20]; however, many other tests are sometimes useful (Table 2). Microscopy of CSF not only establishes the diagnosis of meningitis, but also allows a differential white cell count, and a Gram stain (and other stains for pathogens) will often establish a bacterial or fungal cause. CSF cytology will also exclude a neoplastic meningitis. The possibility of a viral aetiology of meningitis usually arises once bacterial stains (and later cultures) of CSF are negative; however, it is important to consider other causes of aseptic meningitis. These include fungal or mycobacterial [particularly in the immunocompromised and in those from communities with a high incidence of tuberculosis (TB)] and non-infectious aetiologies. A lymphocyte pleocytosis is often cited as a hallmark of viral meningitis, although a preponderance of polymorphs is sometimes seen early in the infection, particularly in enteroviral meningitis [2, 21]. CSF white cell counts in viral meningitis are typically in the 20–500 cells ml–1 range; however, they may occasionally reach the 1000 cells ml–1 level.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 2 Useful investigations in suspected viral meningitis

 

Isolation of viruses (on tissue culture) from CSF, blood or urine is the gold standard for diagnosing many viral pathogens causing meningitis; however, the procedure is slow, expensive and not always sensitive. The most valuable development in recent years has been the establishment of CSF polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as a rapid, sensitive and specific method of diagnosis [22]. Many reference laboratories now offer a CSF PCR service covering enteroviruses and HSV, with the option of also testing for CMV, VZV or EBV. Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT–PCR) assays for enteroviruses have been shown to be more sensitive (and rapid) than cultures of CSF [23] and PCR assays for herpesviruses have proved equally effective at improving the accuracy and speed of diagnosis [24]. Many developments in PCR technology have improved specificity and the time taken to perform assays, including multiplex nested PCRs, real-time PCR and time-resolved fluorometric PCR [25–27]. Rapid diagnosis by CSF RT–PCR assays has allowed reductions in both hospital stays and antibiotic usage in patients admitted with enteroviral meningitis [2, 21, 28] and limited the use of acyclovir in patients with suspected HSV encephalitis. There is therefore a strong case for regional reference laboratories providing a rapid CSF PCR service (within 48 h of receipt) to reduce drug costs and inpatient stays. Although PCR assays for a variety of other viruses in CSF samples have been developed, they have yet to become established as their main diagnostic modality.

When obtaining CSF is difficult, culture of throat and stool samples is helpful in diagnosing enteroviral infections; however, the correlation between positive cultures and proven enteroviral meningitis is not well established. Nevertheless, one study indicated that RT–PCR of stool samples may be useful (in addition to CSF samples) in enteroviral meningitis when patients present later [29]. Immunoassays on serum (±CSF samples) are currently the main method for diagnosing several virus causing meningitis. Serological assays are the most widely used method for diagnosing meningitis due to mumps, flaviviruses (and other arboviruses), HIV and LCMV. These tests may be negative during the early stages of infection, so they require a second convalescent sample to be sent 2 weeks later. Although measuring CSF as well as serum antibody titre is often undertaken, the practical value in diagnosing viral meningitis is limited. In practice, where viral PCR results are negative in aseptic meningitis, serological tests for a variety of other pathogens are requested, depending on clinical features and exposure history. When acute HIV infection is suspected, a negative serological test should prompt alternative investigations (such as p24 assay, HIV PCR or viral load) in those with strong risk factors for HIV infection or with other features of an HIV seroconversion illness; alternatively, a repeat HIV test should be arranged several weeks later.

There has been considerable interest in the utility of blood inflammatory markers in distinguishing viral from bacterial meningitis. Many studies have suggested that a C-reactive protein (CRP) on presentation of less than 50 mg l–1 is predictive of viral meningitis [2, 30]; however, a meta-analysis showed that CRP was not so useful apart from very low levels indicating a high negative predictive value [31]. Serum procalcitonin levels appear more promising in this respect [32, 33]. Neuroimaging, either by computerized tomography (CT) or by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans with contrast enhancement, may be useful in determining the aetiology of encephalitis, particularly for herpesviruses and flaviviruses. MRI scans are more sensitive at detecting demyelination and more subtle parenchymal changes associated with encephalitis [34]. Flaviviral encephalitis is typically manifest by increased enhancement in the basal ganglia and brainstem, whereas in HSV encephalitis, changes are usually seen in the temporal lobes. An electroencephalogram (EEG) may also help in distinguishing viral encephalitides from one another [35] or other encephalopathies. Some distinctive abnormalities on EEGs are illustrated in Table 2.

It is important to consider the differential diagnosis of aseptic meningitis, in terms of both non-viral infections and non-infectious causes of meningitis, when considering investigations. The most significant non-viral pathogens causing aseptic meningitis are mycobacteria, spirochetes (syphilis, Borrelia spp. and Leptospira spp.), rickettsiae, protozoa and helminths. Furthermore, partially treated bacterial meningitis or, occasionally, a brain abscess may present as apparent aseptic meningitis, and some bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes and Nocardia spp. are often not easily identified on CSF stains and cultures. Post-vaccination aseptic meningitis or encephalitis is a recognized, if rare complication of immunization with mumps, measles, pertussis, rabies, vaccinia and influenza vaccines. Significant non-infectious causes of aseptic meningitis are intracranial neoplasms, connective-tissue diseases and vasculitis [including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)], drugs [including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and some antimicrobial agents], sarcoidosis and Behçet’s disease.


   Therapies for viral meningitis
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
Prevention
 References
 
Acyclovir, given intravenously (10 mg kg–1 8 hourly), is the most important antiviral therapy available for the treatment of HSV (or VZV) meningoencephalitis, reducing the mortality of HSV encephalitis to 20% [36, 37]. It should be used empirically in any patient with clinical signs of encephalitis or with other features of HSV infection such as cold sores or genital lesions, whilst awaiting CSF PCR results or until an alternative pathogen is identified. In established cases of HSV or VZV encephalitis, it should be continued for 2–3 weeks. Intravenous ganciclovir is the preferred antiviral therapy for CMV meningoencephalitis (5 mg kg–1 12 hourly for 2 weeks), although the oral prodrug valganciclovir, which achieves similar blood levels to intravenous ganciclovir, is a useful alternative. Other, second-line anti-herpesvirus drugs are foscarnet and cidofovir. These as well as ganciclovir are associated with significant renal toxicity, and close monitoring is mandatory.

There are currently no licensed therapies for enteroviral infection; however, pleconaril, a drug with anti-picornavirus activity, was recently evaluated both in patients with primary immunodeficiency (through a compassionate release programme) and in several clinical trials in enteroviral infections in adults and children, including meningitis in infants [38]. Although this drug appeared to be effective in many patients with primary immunodeficiency [39], the results of the trials did not support an unequivocal benefit and there have been some concerns regarding drug interactions. Licensing by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was therefore refused, and the drug is no longer available. In patients with enterovirus-associated CEMA, many would advocate a high-dose immunoglobulin therapy, particularly for complications outside the CNS. In patients with meningitis, in the context of an established HIV seroconversion illness or a chronic HIV meningoencephalitis, the use of HAART is reasonable for symptomatic control, although there is little experience of its use in aseptic meningitis specifically.

There are no licensed therapies for flaviviral infections, although recent interest in therapies for West Nile virus has included specific antiserum and interferon-{alpha}-2b [40], following case reports of possible improvement; trials of the latter are currently underway. Amantadine has been used for influenza meningoencephalitis, although there are few reports on its efficacy. The neuraminidase inhibitors may also be effective in this infection, although there are no published reports of its use in encephalitis. There are very few other antiviral agents in development; however, synthetic nucleic acid inhibitors appear promising in many animal models of viral infection.


   Prevention
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
References
 
Active immunizations to prevent viral meningitis are available for mumps and measles (MMR), Japanese B encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis, rabies, influenza, varicella and polio; the only polio vaccine available in the UK now is the inactivated polio vaccine, combined with diphtheria and tetanus. Given the rate of severe adverse reactions to Japanese B encephalitis vaccine (severe allergic reactions in 4-8 per 100 000 and encephalitis in 1 in 2.5 million, vaccination is usually limited to long-stay residents in endemic regions and to those travellers at a high risk of infection. Those travelling to areas of the world with a high incidence of flaviviral infections should be advised to take stringent precautions to prevent mosquito and tick bites, particularly using impregnated bed nets and insect repellents.

Immunoglobulin therapy prevents enteroviral meningitis in patients with primary immunodeficiency; however, intramuscular delivery is not as effective as intravenous therapy in preventing infections. Human immunoglobulin preparations are also available for post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies and tick-borne encephalitis. To prevent congenital LCMV infection, pregnant women should avoid potential contact with rodents.

Accepted for publication November 28, 2005.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Pathophysiology
 Epidemiology and clinical...
 Diagnosis
 Therapies for viral meningitis
 Prevention
 References
 

  1. CDSC. Viral meningitis associated with increase in echovirus type 13. Commun Dis Rep CDR Wkly 2000;10:277–8.[Medline]
  2. Chadwick DR, Lever AM. The impact of new diagnostic methodologies in the management of meningitis in adults at a teaching hospital. QJM 2002;95:663–70.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Cassady RA, Whitley RJ. Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of viral infections of the central nervous system. In Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Durak DT (eds) Infections of the Central Nervous System (2nd edn). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997, 7–22.
  4. Huang CC, Liu CC, Chang YC et al. Neurologic complications in children with enterovirus 71 infection. N Engl J Med 1999;341:936–942.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Henquell C, Chambon M, Bailly JL et al. Prospective analysis of 61 cases of enteroviral meningitis: interest of systematic genome detection in cerebrospinal fluid irrespective of cytologic examination results. J Clin Virol 2001;21:29–35.[Medline]
  6. Dagan R, Jenista JA, Menegus MA. Association of clinical presentation, laboratory findings, and virus serotypes with the presence of meningitis in hospitalized infants with enterovirus infection. J Pediatr 1988;113:975–8.[Medline]
  7. Rotbart HA, Brennan PJ, Fife KH et al. Enterovirus meningitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27:896–8.[Medline]
  8. Wilfert CM, Thompson RJ Jr, Sunder TR et al. Longitudinal assessment of children with enteroviral meningitis during the first 3 months of life. Pediatrics 1981;67:811–5.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Bedford H, de Louvais J, Halket S et al. Meningitis in infancy in England and Wales: follow up at age 5 years. BMJ 2001;323:1–5.[Free Full Text]
  10. Rudge P, Webster AD, Revesz T et al. Encephalomyelitis in primary hypogammaglobulinaemia. Brain 1996;119:1–15.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Halliday E, Winkelstein J, Webster AD. Enteroviral infections in primary immunodeficiency (PID): a survey of morbidity and mortality. J Infect 2003;46:1–8.[Medline]
  12. Tyler KL. Herpes simplex virus infections of the central nervous system: encephalitis and meningitis, including Mollaret’s. Herpes 2004;11 (Suppl. 2):A57–64.
  13. Alford CA Jr, Dolin R, Hirsch MS et al. Herpes simplex encephalitis and clinical trial design. Lancet 1982;1 (8279):1013.
  14. Domingues RB, Tsanaclis AM, Pannuti CS et al. Evaluation of the range of clinical presentations of herpes simplex encephalitis by using polymerase chain reaction assay of cerebrospinal fluid samples. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:86–91.[Medline]
  15. Bergstrom T, Vahlne A, Alestig K et al. Primary and recurrent herpes simplex virus type 2-induced meningitis. J Infect Dis 1990;162:322–30.[Medline]
  16. Mommeja-Marin H, Lafaurie M, Scieux C et al. Herpes simplex virus type 2 as a cause of severe meningitis in immunocompromised adults. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1527–33.[Medline]
  17. Solomon T. Flavivirus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2004;351:370–8.[Free Full Text]
  18. Iwamoto M, Jernigan DB, Guasch A et al. Transmission of West Nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2003;348:2196–203.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  19. Asnis DS, Conetta R, Waldman G et al. The West Nile virus encephalitis outbreak in the United States (1999–2000): from Flushing, New York, to beyond its borders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001;951:161–71.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  20. Thomson RB Jr, Bertram H. Laboratory diagnosis of central nervous system infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2001;15:1047–71.[Medline]
  21. Makwana N, Nye K, Riordan FA. Meningitis without a petechial rash in children in the Hib vaccine era. J Infect 2004;49:297–301.[Medline]
  22. Jeffery KJ, Read SJ, Peto TE et al. Diagnosis of viral infections of the central nervous system: clinical interpretation of PCR results. Lancet 1997;349 (9048):313–7.[Medline]
  23. Vuorinen T, Vainionpaa R, Hyypia T. Five years’ experience of reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction in daily diagnosis of enterovirus and rhinovirus infections. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:452–5.[Medline]
  24. Boivin G. Diagnosis of herpesvirus infections of the central nervous system. Herpes 2004;11 (Suppl. 2):A48–56.
  25. Guney C, Ozkaya E, Yapar M et al. Laboratory diagnosis of enteroviral infections of the central nervous system by using a nested RT-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2003;47:557–62.[Medline]
  26. Archimbaud C, Mirand A, Chambon M et al. Improved diagnosis on a daily basis of enterovirus meningitis using a one-step real-time RT–PCR assay. J Med Virol 2004;74:604–11.[Medline]
  27. Hukkanen V, Vuorinen T. Herpesviruses and enteroviruses in infections of the central nervous system: a study using time-resolved fluorometry PCR. J Clin Virol 2002;25 (Suppl. 1):S87–94.
  28. Robinson CC, Willis M, Meagher A et al. Impact of rapid polymerase chain reaction results on management of pediatric patients with enteroviral meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21:283–6.[Medline]
  29. Kupila L, Vuorinen T, Vainionpaa R et al. Diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis by use of polymerase chain reaction of cerebrospinal fluid, stool, and serum specimens. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:982–7.[Medline]
  30. Pavic M, Rabar D, Amah Y et al. Acute aseptic meningitis in adults. Retrospective study of 32 cases. Presse Med 2004;33:1511–5.[Medline]
  31. Gerdes LU, Jorgensen PE, Nexo E et al. C-reactive protein and bacterial meningitis: a meta-analysis. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1998;58:383–93.[Medline]
  32. Mary R, Veinberg F, Couderc R. Acute meningitidis, acute phase proteins and procalcitonin. Ann Biol Clin (Paris) 2003;61:127–37.[Medline]
  33. Marc E, Menager C, Moulin F et al. Procalcitonin and viral meningitis: reduction of unnecessary antibiotics by measurement during an outbreak. Arch Pediatr 2002;9:358–64.[Medline]
  34. Tsuchiya K, Katase S, Yoshino A et al. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of encephalitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;173:1097–9.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  35. Misra UK, Kalita J. A comparative study of Japanese and herpes simplex encephalitides. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 1998;38:41–6.[Medline]
  36. Skoldenberg B, Forsgren M. Acyclovir versus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl 1985;47:89–96.[Medline]
  37. Whitley RJ, Alford CA, Hirsch MS et al. Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis. N Engl J Med 1986;314:144–9.[Abstract]
  38. Abzug MJ, Cloud G, Bradley J et al. Double blind placebo-controlled trial of pleconaril in infants with enterovirus meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22:335–41.[Medline]
  39. Rotbart HA, Webster AD, Pleconaril Treatment Registry Group. Treatment of potentially life-threatening enterovirus infections with pleconaril. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:228–35.[Medline]
  40. Kalil AC, Devetten MP, Singh S et al. Use of interferon-alpha in patients with West Nile encephalitis: report of 2 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:764–6.[Medline]

Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us    What's this?



This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow FREE Full Text (PDF) Freely available
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My Personal Archive
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Disclaimer
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Chadwick, D. R.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Chadwick, D. R.
Related Collections
Right arrow Infectious Diseases
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us  
What's this?